Pathway framework 6 of 8

Weighing the Evidence

How to get a treatment effect by combining the results of studies

How a treatment effect is estimated, pooled for a model, and taken from routine data when trials are not the source.

5 steps

This framework organises the concepts covered at each step of the pathway on the Knowledge Map.

1. • Randomised Controlled TrialEvidence Synthesis
   • Clinical TrialEvidence Synthesis
   • RandomizationEvidence Synthesis
   • Allocation ConcealmentEvidence Synthesis
   • Intention-to-Treat AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Active Control TrialEvidence Synthesis
   • Non-Inferiority TrialEvidence Synthesis
   • Observational StudyEvidence Synthesis
   • Cohort DesignEvidence Synthesis
   • Case-Control DesignEvidence Synthesis
   • Surrogate EndpointEvidence Synthesis
   • Loss to Follow-UpEvidence Synthesis

   Step 1

   Trial and study design

   How trials and observational studies are set up so that treatments can be compared fairly.

   38 concepts

   Why start here

   Every treatment effect used in an evaluation comes from a study, so the pathway starts with how studies are designed and where bias can enter.

   • Adaptive Trial DesignEvidence Synthesis
   • Administrative CensoringEvidence Synthesis
   • Basket TrialEvidence Synthesis
   • Bayesian Adaptive DesignEvidence Synthesis
   • Block RandomizationEvidence Synthesis
   • Cluster RandomizationEvidence Synthesis
   • Show 20 more

     • Cross-Sectional DesignEvidence Synthesis
     • Crossover DesignEvidence Synthesis
     • Crossover TrialEvidence Synthesis
     • Dependent CensoringEvidence Synthesis
     • Electronic Health RecordEvidence Synthesis
     • Equivalence TrialEvidence Synthesis
     • Factorial DesignEvidence Synthesis
     • Futility AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • Group Sequential DesignEvidence Synthesis
     • Immortal TimeEvidence Synthesis
     • Independent CensoringEvidence Synthesis
     • Interim AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • Left TruncationEvidence Synthesis
     • Longitudinal DesignEvidence Synthesis
     • Minimal Clinically Important DifferenceEvidence Synthesis
     • N-of-1 TrialEvidence Synthesis
     • Quasi-Experimental DesignEvidence Synthesis
     • ScreeningEvidence Synthesis
     • Sequential SamplingEvidence Synthesis
     • TruncationEvidence Synthesis

   Must-learn

   • Randomised Controlled TrialEvidence Synthesis
   • Clinical TrialEvidence Synthesis
   • RandomizationEvidence Synthesis
   • Allocation ConcealmentEvidence Synthesis
   • Intention-to-Treat AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Active Control TrialEvidence Synthesis
   • Non-Inferiority TrialEvidence Synthesis
   • Observational StudyEvidence Synthesis
   • Cohort DesignEvidence Synthesis
   • Case-Control DesignEvidence Synthesis
   • Surrogate EndpointEvidence Synthesis
   • Loss to Follow-UpEvidence Synthesis

   Optional

   • Adaptive Trial DesignEvidence Synthesis
   • Administrative CensoringEvidence Synthesis
   • Basket TrialEvidence Synthesis
   • Bayesian Adaptive DesignEvidence Synthesis
   • Block RandomizationEvidence Synthesis
   • Cluster RandomizationEvidence Synthesis
   • Cross-Sectional DesignEvidence Synthesis
   • Crossover DesignEvidence Synthesis
   • Crossover TrialEvidence Synthesis
   • Dependent CensoringEvidence Synthesis
   • Electronic Health RecordEvidence Synthesis
   • Equivalence TrialEvidence Synthesis
   • Factorial DesignEvidence Synthesis
   • Futility AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Group Sequential DesignEvidence Synthesis
   • Immortal TimeEvidence Synthesis
   • Independent CensoringEvidence Synthesis
   • Interim AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Left TruncationEvidence Synthesis
   • Longitudinal DesignEvidence Synthesis
   • Minimal Clinically Important DifferenceEvidence Synthesis
   • N-of-1 TrialEvidence Synthesis
   • Quasi-Experimental DesignEvidence Synthesis
   • ScreeningEvidence Synthesis
   • Sequential SamplingEvidence Synthesis
   • TruncationEvidence Synthesis
2. • IncidenceEvidence Synthesis
   • PrevalenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Incidence RateEvidence Synthesis
   • Cumulative IncidenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Mortality RateEvidence Synthesis
   • All-Cause MortalityEvidence Synthesis
   • Absolute RiskEvidence Synthesis
   • Relative RiskEvidence Synthesis
   • Risk RatioEvidence Synthesis
   • Odds RatioEvidence Synthesis
   • Hazard RatioEvidence Synthesis
   • Risk DifferenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Show 7 more

     • Absolute Risk ReductionEvidence Synthesis
     • Relative Risk ReductionEvidence Synthesis
     • Number Needed to TreatEvidence Synthesis
     • Number Needed to HarmEvidence Synthesis
     • SensitivityEvidence Synthesis
     • SpecificityEvidence Synthesis
     • Life ExpectancyEvidence Synthesis

   Step 2

   Epidemiology and risk measures

   The measures that describe how often disease occurs and how much a treatment changes the risk of an event.

   58 concepts

   Why this comes next

   Study results have to be reported on a scale, and these measures are the numbers that the later steps estimate and pool.

   • Additive Interaction ScaleEvidence Synthesis
   • Analytic EpidemiologyEvidence Synthesis
   • Antimicrobial ResistanceEvidence Synthesis
   • Attack RateEvidence Synthesis
   • Attack Rate RatioEvidence Synthesis
   • Attributable FractionEvidence Synthesis
   • Show 33 more

     • Attributable RiskEvidence Synthesis
     • Basic Reproduction NumberEvidence Synthesis
     • Bayes TheoremEvidence Synthesis
     • Case Fatality RateEvidence Synthesis
     • Diabetes ComplicationsEvidence Synthesis
     • Effective Reproduction NumberEvidence Synthesis
     • Healthy Life ExpectancyEvidence Synthesis
     • Herd Immunity ThresholdEvidence Synthesis
     • Incidence Rate RatioEvidence Synthesis
     • Lifetime PrevalenceEvidence Synthesis
     • Likelihood RatioEvidence Synthesis
     • Negative Likelihood RatioEvidence Synthesis
     • Negative Predictive ValueEvidence Synthesis
     • Number Needed to ScreenEvidence Synthesis
     • Period PrevalenceEvidence Synthesis
     • Point PrevalenceEvidence Synthesis
     • Population Attributable FractionEvidence Synthesis
     • Population Attributable RiskEvidence Synthesis
     • Positive Likelihood RatioEvidence Synthesis
     • Positive Predictive ValueEvidence Synthesis
     • Post-Test ProbabilityEvidence Synthesis
     • Posterior OddsEvidence Synthesis
     • Pre-Test ProbabilityEvidence Synthesis
     • Prevalence DifferenceEvidence Synthesis
     • Prevalence RatioEvidence Synthesis
     • Prevented FractionEvidence Synthesis
     • Prior OddsEvidence Synthesis
     • Rate DifferenceEvidence Synthesis
     • Reproduction NumberEvidence Synthesis
     • Secondary Attack RateEvidence Synthesis
     • Vaccine EffectivenessEvidence Synthesis
     • Vaccine EfficacyEvidence Synthesis
     • Years of Life LostEvidence Synthesis

   Must-learn

   • IncidenceEvidence Synthesis
   • PrevalenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Incidence RateEvidence Synthesis
   • Cumulative IncidenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Mortality RateEvidence Synthesis
   • All-Cause MortalityEvidence Synthesis
   • Absolute RiskEvidence Synthesis
   • Relative RiskEvidence Synthesis
   • Risk RatioEvidence Synthesis
   • Odds RatioEvidence Synthesis
   • Hazard RatioEvidence Synthesis
   • Risk DifferenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Absolute Risk ReductionEvidence Synthesis
   • Relative Risk ReductionEvidence Synthesis
   • Number Needed to TreatEvidence Synthesis
   • Number Needed to HarmEvidence Synthesis
   • SensitivityEvidence Synthesis
   • SpecificityEvidence Synthesis
   • Life ExpectancyEvidence Synthesis

   Optional

   • Additive Interaction ScaleEvidence Synthesis
   • Analytic EpidemiologyEvidence Synthesis
   • Antimicrobial ResistanceEvidence Synthesis
   • Attack RateEvidence Synthesis
   • Attack Rate RatioEvidence Synthesis
   • Attributable FractionEvidence Synthesis
   • Attributable RiskEvidence Synthesis
   • Basic Reproduction NumberEvidence Synthesis
   • Bayes TheoremEvidence Synthesis
   • Case Fatality RateEvidence Synthesis
   • Diabetes ComplicationsEvidence Synthesis
   • Effective Reproduction NumberEvidence Synthesis
   • Healthy Life ExpectancyEvidence Synthesis
   • Herd Immunity ThresholdEvidence Synthesis
   • Incidence Rate RatioEvidence Synthesis
   • Lifetime PrevalenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Likelihood RatioEvidence Synthesis
   • Negative Likelihood RatioEvidence Synthesis
   • Negative Predictive ValueEvidence Synthesis
   • Number Needed to ScreenEvidence Synthesis
   • Period PrevalenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Point PrevalenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Population Attributable FractionEvidence Synthesis
   • Population Attributable RiskEvidence Synthesis
   • Positive Likelihood RatioEvidence Synthesis
   • Positive Predictive ValueEvidence Synthesis
   • Post-Test ProbabilityEvidence Synthesis
   • Posterior OddsEvidence Synthesis
   • Pre-Test ProbabilityEvidence Synthesis
   • Prevalence DifferenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Prevalence RatioEvidence Synthesis
   • Prevented FractionEvidence Synthesis
   • Prior OddsEvidence Synthesis
   • Rate DifferenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Reproduction NumberEvidence Synthesis
   • Secondary Attack RateEvidence Synthesis
   • Vaccine EffectivenessEvidence Synthesis
   • Vaccine EfficacyEvidence Synthesis
   • Years of Life LostEvidence Synthesis
3. • MeanEvidence Synthesis
   • MedianEvidence Synthesis
   • VarianceEvidence Synthesis
   • Standard DeviationEvidence Synthesis
   • Standard ErrorEvidence Synthesis
   • Confidence IntervalEvidence Synthesis
   • P-ValueEvidence Synthesis
   • Hypothesis TestingEvidence Synthesis
   • Null HypothesisEvidence Synthesis
   • Statistical SignificanceEvidence Synthesis
   • Significance LevelEvidence Synthesis
   • Type I ErrorEvidence Synthesis
   • Show 37 more

     • Type II ErrorEvidence Synthesis
     • Statistical PowerEvidence Synthesis
     • Sample Size CalculationEvidence Synthesis
     • Effect SizeEvidence Synthesis
     • Test StatisticEvidence Synthesis
     • Binomial DistributionEvidence Synthesis
     • Poisson DistributionEvidence Synthesis
     • T-DistributionEvidence Synthesis
     • Chi-Square DistributionEvidence Synthesis
     • Standard NormalEvidence Synthesis
     • Central Limit TheoremEvidence Synthesis
     • Regression AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • Linear RegressionEvidence Synthesis
     • Logistic RegressionEvidence Synthesis
     • Poisson RegressionEvidence Synthesis
     • Generalized Linear ModelEvidence Synthesis
     • Survival RegressionEvidence Synthesis
     • Maximum Likelihood EstimationEvidence Synthesis
     • Bayesian AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • Frequentist AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • Prior DistributionEvidence Synthesis
     • Posterior DistributionEvidence Synthesis
     • Credible IntervalEvidence Synthesis
     • BootstrappingEvidence Synthesis
     • Missing DataEvidence Synthesis
     • Missing Completely at RandomEvidence Synthesis
     • Missing at RandomEvidence Synthesis
     • Missing Not at RandomEvidence Synthesis
     • Multiple ImputationEvidence Synthesis
     • Mixed Effects ModelEvidence Synthesis
     • Hierarchical ModelEvidence Synthesis
     • Fixed EffectsEvidence Synthesis
     • ROC CurveEvidence Synthesis
     • Area Under CurveEvidence Synthesis
     • Diagnostic AccuracyEvidence Synthesis
     • OverfittingEvidence Synthesis
     • Correlation CoefficientEvidence Synthesis

   Step 3

   Statistical methods

   The tools for estimating effects from study data and for showing how uncertain those estimates are.

   158 concepts

   Why this comes next

   With the measures defined, statistical methods show how each one is estimated from data and how far the estimate can be trusted.

   • Accelerated Failure Time ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Alpha SpendingEvidence Synthesis
   • Asymptotic NormalityEvidence Synthesis
   • Autoregressive CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
   • Beta LevelEvidence Synthesis
   • Between-Subject VariationEvidence Synthesis
   • Show 103 more

     • Bias-Variance TradeoffEvidence Synthesis
     • Bootstrap Standard ErrorEvidence Synthesis
     • Brier ScoreEvidence Synthesis
     • Classification AccuracyEvidence Synthesis
     • Cluster AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • Cohen's dEvidence Synthesis
     • CommunalityEvidence Synthesis
     • Condition IndexEvidence Synthesis
     • Confidence Interval EstimationEvidence Synthesis
     • Confirmatory Factor AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • Cook's DistanceEvidence Synthesis
     • Credible Interval EstimationEvidence Synthesis
     • Critical ValueEvidence Synthesis
     • DecileEvidence Synthesis
     • Delta AdjustmentEvidence Synthesis
     • Delta MethodEvidence Synthesis
     • Design EffectEvidence Synthesis
     • DFBETASEvidence Synthesis
     • Effect Size EstimationEvidence Synthesis
     • Effective Sample SizeEvidence Synthesis
     • EigenvalueEvidence Synthesis
     • Exchangeable CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
     • Exploratory Factor AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • F-DistributionEvidence Synthesis
     • Factor AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • Factor LoadingEvidence Synthesis
     • Factor RotationEvidence Synthesis
     • Fieller MethodEvidence Synthesis
     • Finite Mixture ModelEvidence Synthesis
     • Generalized Estimating EquationsEvidence Synthesis
     • Group-Based Trajectory ModelEvidence Synthesis
     • Growth Curve ModelEvidence Synthesis
     • Growth Mixture ModelEvidence Synthesis
     • Harrell C-IndexEvidence Synthesis
     • Hedges' gEvidence Synthesis
     • Hierarchical TestingEvidence Synthesis
     • Hosmer-Lemeshow TestEvidence Synthesis
     • ImputationEvidence Synthesis
     • Interquartile RangeEvidence Synthesis
     • Intraclass CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
     • JackknifeEvidence Synthesis
     • Jackknife Standard ErrorEvidence Synthesis
     • K-Fold Cross-ValidationEvidence Synthesis
     • Kaiser CriterionEvidence Synthesis
     • Kendall TauEvidence Synthesis
     • KurtosisEvidence Synthesis
     • Last Observation Carried ForwardEvidence Synthesis
     • Latent Class AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • Latent Growth ModelEvidence Synthesis
     • Latent Transition AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • Latent VariableEvidence Synthesis
     • Law of Large NumbersEvidence Synthesis
     • Leave-One-OutEvidence Synthesis
     • Leverage PointEvidence Synthesis
     • Listwise DeletionEvidence Synthesis
     • Mean Absolute ErrorEvidence Synthesis
     • Mean Squared ErrorEvidence Synthesis
     • Mediation AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • Method of MomentsEvidence Synthesis
     • Mixed Model Repeated MeasuresEvidence Synthesis
     • ModeEvidence Synthesis
     • Moderation AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • MulticollinearityEvidence Synthesis
     • Negative BinomialEvidence Synthesis
     • Negative Binomial RegressionEvidence Synthesis
     • Oblique RotationEvidence Synthesis
     • One-Tailed TestEvidence Synthesis
     • Orthogonal RotationEvidence Synthesis
     • OutlierEvidence Synthesis
     • Pairwise DeletionEvidence Synthesis
     • Partial CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
     • Pattern Mixture ModelEvidence Synthesis
     • Pearson CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
     • PercentileEvidence Synthesis
     • Prediction ErrorEvidence Synthesis
     • Prediction IntervalEvidence Synthesis
     • Principal ComponentEvidence Synthesis
     • QuartileEvidence Synthesis
     • RangeEvidence Synthesis
     • Repeated Measures AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • ResidualEvidence Synthesis
     • Robust Standard ErrorEvidence Synthesis
     • Root Mean Square ErrorEvidence Synthesis
     • Sandwich EstimatorEvidence Synthesis
     • Selection ModelEvidence Synthesis
     • SkewnessEvidence Synthesis
     • Spearman CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
     • Standardised ResidualEvidence Synthesis
     • Structural Equation ModelEvidence Synthesis
     • Studentized ResidualEvidence Synthesis
     • Synthetic ControlEvidence Synthesis
     • Taylor Series ExpansionEvidence Synthesis
     • Tolerance IntervalEvidence Synthesis
     • Trajectory AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • Two-Tailed TestEvidence Synthesis
     • UnbiasednessEvidence Synthesis
     • Uniform DistributionEvidence Synthesis
     • Unstructured CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
     • Variance Inflation FactorEvidence Synthesis
     • Varimax RotationEvidence Synthesis
     • Within Subject VariationEvidence Synthesis
     • Working CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
     • Z-ScoreEvidence Synthesis

   Must-learn

   • MeanEvidence Synthesis
   • MedianEvidence Synthesis
   • VarianceEvidence Synthesis
   • Standard DeviationEvidence Synthesis
   • Standard ErrorEvidence Synthesis
   • Confidence IntervalEvidence Synthesis
   • P-ValueEvidence Synthesis
   • Hypothesis TestingEvidence Synthesis
   • Null HypothesisEvidence Synthesis
   • Statistical SignificanceEvidence Synthesis
   • Significance LevelEvidence Synthesis
   • Type I ErrorEvidence Synthesis
   • Type II ErrorEvidence Synthesis
   • Statistical PowerEvidence Synthesis
   • Sample Size CalculationEvidence Synthesis
   • Effect SizeEvidence Synthesis
   • Test StatisticEvidence Synthesis
   • Binomial DistributionEvidence Synthesis
   • Poisson DistributionEvidence Synthesis
   • T-DistributionEvidence Synthesis
   • Chi-Square DistributionEvidence Synthesis
   • Standard NormalEvidence Synthesis
   • Central Limit TheoremEvidence Synthesis
   • Regression AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Linear RegressionEvidence Synthesis
   • Logistic RegressionEvidence Synthesis
   • Poisson RegressionEvidence Synthesis
   • Generalized Linear ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Survival RegressionEvidence Synthesis
   • Maximum Likelihood EstimationEvidence Synthesis
   • Bayesian AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Frequentist AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Prior DistributionEvidence Synthesis
   • Posterior DistributionEvidence Synthesis
   • Credible IntervalEvidence Synthesis
   • BootstrappingEvidence Synthesis
   • Missing DataEvidence Synthesis
   • Missing Completely at RandomEvidence Synthesis
   • Missing at RandomEvidence Synthesis
   • Missing Not at RandomEvidence Synthesis
   • Multiple ImputationEvidence Synthesis
   • Mixed Effects ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Hierarchical ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Fixed EffectsEvidence Synthesis
   • ROC CurveEvidence Synthesis
   • Area Under CurveEvidence Synthesis
   • Diagnostic AccuracyEvidence Synthesis
   • OverfittingEvidence Synthesis
   • Correlation CoefficientEvidence Synthesis

   Optional

   • Accelerated Failure Time ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Alpha SpendingEvidence Synthesis
   • Asymptotic NormalityEvidence Synthesis
   • Autoregressive CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
   • Beta LevelEvidence Synthesis
   • Between-Subject VariationEvidence Synthesis
   • Bias-Variance TradeoffEvidence Synthesis
   • Bootstrap Standard ErrorEvidence Synthesis
   • Brier ScoreEvidence Synthesis
   • Classification AccuracyEvidence Synthesis
   • Cluster AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Cohen's dEvidence Synthesis
   • CommunalityEvidence Synthesis
   • Condition IndexEvidence Synthesis
   • Confidence Interval EstimationEvidence Synthesis
   • Confirmatory Factor AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Cook's DistanceEvidence Synthesis
   • Credible Interval EstimationEvidence Synthesis
   • Critical ValueEvidence Synthesis
   • DecileEvidence Synthesis
   • Delta AdjustmentEvidence Synthesis
   • Delta MethodEvidence Synthesis
   • Design EffectEvidence Synthesis
   • DFBETASEvidence Synthesis
   • Effect Size EstimationEvidence Synthesis
   • Effective Sample SizeEvidence Synthesis
   • EigenvalueEvidence Synthesis
   • Exchangeable CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
   • Exploratory Factor AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • F-DistributionEvidence Synthesis
   • Factor AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Factor LoadingEvidence Synthesis
   • Factor RotationEvidence Synthesis
   • Fieller MethodEvidence Synthesis
   • Finite Mixture ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Generalized Estimating EquationsEvidence Synthesis
   • Group-Based Trajectory ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Growth Curve ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Growth Mixture ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Harrell C-IndexEvidence Synthesis
   • Hedges' gEvidence Synthesis
   • Hierarchical TestingEvidence Synthesis
   • Hosmer-Lemeshow TestEvidence Synthesis
   • ImputationEvidence Synthesis
   • Interquartile RangeEvidence Synthesis
   • Intraclass CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
   • JackknifeEvidence Synthesis
   • Jackknife Standard ErrorEvidence Synthesis
   • K-Fold Cross-ValidationEvidence Synthesis
   • Kaiser CriterionEvidence Synthesis
   • Kendall TauEvidence Synthesis
   • KurtosisEvidence Synthesis
   • Last Observation Carried ForwardEvidence Synthesis
   • Latent Class AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Latent Growth ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Latent Transition AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Latent VariableEvidence Synthesis
   • Law of Large NumbersEvidence Synthesis
   • Leave-One-OutEvidence Synthesis
   • Leverage PointEvidence Synthesis
   • Listwise DeletionEvidence Synthesis
   • Mean Absolute ErrorEvidence Synthesis
   • Mean Squared ErrorEvidence Synthesis
   • Mediation AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Method of MomentsEvidence Synthesis
   • Mixed Model Repeated MeasuresEvidence Synthesis
   • ModeEvidence Synthesis
   • Moderation AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • MulticollinearityEvidence Synthesis
   • Negative BinomialEvidence Synthesis
   • Negative Binomial RegressionEvidence Synthesis
   • Oblique RotationEvidence Synthesis
   • One-Tailed TestEvidence Synthesis
   • Orthogonal RotationEvidence Synthesis
   • OutlierEvidence Synthesis
   • Pairwise DeletionEvidence Synthesis
   • Partial CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
   • Pattern Mixture ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Pearson CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
   • PercentileEvidence Synthesis
   • Prediction ErrorEvidence Synthesis
   • Prediction IntervalEvidence Synthesis
   • Principal ComponentEvidence Synthesis
   • QuartileEvidence Synthesis
   • RangeEvidence Synthesis
   • Repeated Measures AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • ResidualEvidence Synthesis
   • Robust Standard ErrorEvidence Synthesis
   • Root Mean Square ErrorEvidence Synthesis
   • Sandwich EstimatorEvidence Synthesis
   • Selection ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • SkewnessEvidence Synthesis
   • Spearman CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
   • Standardised ResidualEvidence Synthesis
   • Structural Equation ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Studentized ResidualEvidence Synthesis
   • Synthetic ControlEvidence Synthesis
   • Taylor Series ExpansionEvidence Synthesis
   • Tolerance IntervalEvidence Synthesis
   • Trajectory AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Two-Tailed TestEvidence Synthesis
   • UnbiasednessEvidence Synthesis
   • Uniform DistributionEvidence Synthesis
   • Unstructured CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
   • Variance Inflation FactorEvidence Synthesis
   • Varimax RotationEvidence Synthesis
   • Within Subject VariationEvidence Synthesis
   • Working CorrelationEvidence Synthesis
   • Z-ScoreEvidence Synthesis
4. • EvidenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Systematic ReviewEvidence Synthesis
   • Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Pairwise Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Fixed Effect ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Random Effects ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Between-Study HeterogeneityEvidence Synthesis
   • I-SquaredEvidence Synthesis
   • Tau-SquaredEvidence Synthesis
   • Indirect Treatment ComparisonEvidence Synthesis
   • Network Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Individual Patient Data Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Show 2 more

     • Quality of EvidenceEvidence Synthesis
     • Egger TestEvidence Synthesis

   Step 4

   Evidence synthesis and appraisal

   Finding and appraising all the relevant studies and combining their results, including comparisons of treatments never tested against each other in one trial.

   43 concepts

   Why this comes next

   A single study rarely settles a question, so once the analysis of one study is clear, the results of many studies are appraised and pooled.

   • Aggregate Data Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Analysis ErrorEvidence Synthesis
   • Applicability AssessmentEvidence Synthesis
   • Bayesian Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Begg TestEvidence Synthesis
   • Construct ValidityEvidence Synthesis
   • Show 23 more

     • Convergent ValidityEvidence Synthesis
     • Copas ModelEvidence Synthesis
     • Criterion ValidityEvidence Synthesis
     • Discriminant ValidityEvidence Synthesis
     • Feasibility AssessmentEvidence Synthesis
     • Frequentist Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • Heterogeneity AssessmentEvidence Synthesis
     • Indirect ComparisonEvidence Synthesis
     • Information BiasEvidence Synthesis
     • Inter-Rater ReliabilityEvidence Synthesis
     • Internal Consistency ReliabilityEvidence Synthesis
     • Intra-Rater ReliabilityEvidence Synthesis
     • Measurement ErrorEvidence Synthesis
     • Multivariate Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • Network Meta-Analysis HTAEvidence Synthesis
     • Node-SplittingEvidence Synthesis
     • One-Stage Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • P-ScoreEvidence Synthesis
     • Reliability AssessmentEvidence Synthesis
     • Simpson ParadoxEvidence Synthesis
     • SUCRAEvidence Synthesis
     • Test-Retest ReliabilityEvidence Synthesis
     • Two-Stage Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis

   Must-learn

   • EvidenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Systematic ReviewEvidence Synthesis
   • Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Pairwise Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Fixed Effect ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Random Effects ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Between-Study HeterogeneityEvidence Synthesis
   • I-SquaredEvidence Synthesis
   • Tau-SquaredEvidence Synthesis
   • Indirect Treatment ComparisonEvidence Synthesis
   • Network Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Individual Patient Data Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Quality of EvidenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Egger TestEvidence Synthesis

   Optional

   • Aggregate Data Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Analysis ErrorEvidence Synthesis
   • Applicability AssessmentEvidence Synthesis
   • Bayesian Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Begg TestEvidence Synthesis
   • Construct ValidityEvidence Synthesis
   • Convergent ValidityEvidence Synthesis
   • Copas ModelEvidence Synthesis
   • Criterion ValidityEvidence Synthesis
   • Discriminant ValidityEvidence Synthesis
   • Feasibility AssessmentEvidence Synthesis
   • Frequentist Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Heterogeneity AssessmentEvidence Synthesis
   • Indirect ComparisonEvidence Synthesis
   • Information BiasEvidence Synthesis
   • Inter-Rater ReliabilityEvidence Synthesis
   • Internal Consistency ReliabilityEvidence Synthesis
   • Intra-Rater ReliabilityEvidence Synthesis
   • Measurement ErrorEvidence Synthesis
   • Multivariate Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Network Meta-Analysis HTAEvidence Synthesis
   • Node-SplittingEvidence Synthesis
   • One-Stage Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • P-ScoreEvidence Synthesis
   • Reliability AssessmentEvidence Synthesis
   • Simpson ParadoxEvidence Synthesis
   • SUCRAEvidence Synthesis
   • Test-Retest ReliabilityEvidence Synthesis
   • Two-Stage Meta-AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
5. • Causal InferenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Treatment EffectEvidence Synthesis
   • Average Treatment EffectEvidence Synthesis
   • Real-World DataEvidence Synthesis
   • Real-World EvidenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Propensity ScoreEvidence Synthesis
   • Matching-Adjusted Indirect ComparisonEvidence Synthesis

   Step 5

   Causal inference and real-world evidence

   Estimating treatment effects from routine data and other non-randomised sources, where the groups being compared may differ at the start.

   18 concepts

   Why this comes next

   Trials cannot answer every question, so the pathway ends with methods that adjust for differences between groups when there is no randomisation.

   Also on the Building the Model pathway

   • Administrative DataEvidence Synthesis
   • Decision Curve AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Difference-in-DifferencesEvidence Synthesis
   • EffectivenessEvidence Synthesis
   • Heterogeneous Treatment EffectEvidence Synthesis
   • Instrumental VariableEvidence Synthesis
   • Show 5 more

     • Instrumental Variable AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
     • Interrupted Time SeriesEvidence Synthesis
     • Net BenefitEconomic Evaluation
     • Propensity Score MatchingEvidence Synthesis
     • Simulated Treatment ComparisonEvidence Synthesis

   Must-learn

   • Causal InferenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Treatment EffectEvidence Synthesis
   • Average Treatment EffectEvidence Synthesis
   • Real-World DataEvidence Synthesis
   • Real-World EvidenceEvidence Synthesis
   • Propensity ScoreEvidence Synthesis
   • Matching-Adjusted Indirect ComparisonEvidence Synthesis

   Optional

   • Administrative DataEvidence Synthesis
   • Decision Curve AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Difference-in-DifferencesEvidence Synthesis
   • EffectivenessEvidence Synthesis
   • Heterogeneous Treatment EffectEvidence Synthesis
   • Instrumental VariableEvidence Synthesis
   • Instrumental Variable AnalysisEvidence Synthesis
   • Interrupted Time SeriesEvidence Synthesis
   • Net BenefitEconomic Evaluation
   • Propensity Score MatchingEvidence Synthesis
   • Simulated Treatment ComparisonEvidence Synthesis